The Grumpy Doc

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Eating Well for the Long Run: How Your Nutritional Needs Change as You Age

By

On July 20, 2026

In Medicine

Growing older is often described as a gradual process, but many of the body’s changes begin earlier than most people realize. By our thirties, we slowly begin to lose muscle mass. By our fifties and sixties, our metabolism slows, bones become more fragile, digestion changes, and our bodies become less efficient at absorbing certain nutrients. None of this means declining health is inevitable. In fact, one of the most powerful tools for maintaining strength, independence, and quality of life is something we do every day: eat.

The nutritional needs of older adults are different from those of younger adults—not because the body suddenly requires exotic foods or expensive supplements, but because it becomes less forgiving of nutritional shortfalls. While calorie requirements often decline as physical activity decreases and muscle mass diminishes, the need for high-quality nutrients remains the same or even increases. Nutritionists refer to this as the challenge of nutrient density: getting more nutrition from fewer calories.

The goal of eating well in later life is not simply to prevent disease. It is to preserve muscle, maintain cognitive function, support the immune system, protect the heart and bones, and help people remain active and independent for as long as possible.

Protein: The Cornerstone of Healthy Aging

Protein is perhaps the most important of all nutrients as we age. Beginning around age 30, adults lose approximately 3 to 8 percent of their muscle mass each decade. After age 60, the rate often accelerates. This gradual decline, known as sarcopenia, contributes to weakness, slower walking speed, impaired balance, increased risk of falls, and loss of independence. During illness or hospitalization, muscle can disappear surprisingly quickly, making recovery more difficult.

The problem is compounded by what scientists call anabolic resistance. Aging muscle simply does not respond to protein as efficiently as younger muscle. Older adults must consume more protein—and distribute it more evenly throughout the day—to stimulate muscle repair and growth.

The Recommended Dietary Allowance is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight— that’s about 80 grams for a 160-pound adult. For reference, a 4 oz serving of salmon has about 22 grams of protein. Many geriatric nutrition experts recommend 1.0 to 1.2 grams per kilogram daily for healthy adults over age 65. Those recovering from surgery, injury, or serious illness may require1.2 to 1.5 grams per kilogram, but only under medical supervision.

Equally important is timing. Many Americans consume very little protein at breakfast, a modest amount at lunch, and most of it at dinner. Research suggests muscle responds better when approximately 25 to 30 grams of protein are consumed at each meal.

Excellent sources include fish, poultry, lean meat, eggs, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, beans, lentils, tofu, soy products, nuts, and seeds. Dairy proteins such as whey are especially rich in leucine, an amino acid that plays a central role in stimulating muscle protein synthesis.

Nutrition alone, however, is only part of the equation. Resistance training—even with light weights or resistance bands—works hand in hand with adequate protein to preserve muscle throughout later life.

Carbohydrates: Choosing Quality Over Quantity

Carbohydrates have acquired an undeserved reputation in many popular diets. In reality, they remain the body’s preferred source of energy and are especially important for the brain, which relies heavily on glucose to function.

The key is not eliminating carbohydrates but selecting healthier ones.

As we age, our bodies often become less sensitive to insulin, making blood sugar regulation more challenging. Highly refined carbohydrates—white bread, pastries, sugary beverages, and many processed snack foods—cause rapid spikes in blood glucose followed by equally rapid declines. Over time, these fluctuations may contribute to weight gain, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.

Complex carbohydrates digest more slowly, providing a steadier release of energy while supplying vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Whole grains such as oatmeal, barley, brown rice, and whole-wheat bread are excellent choices. Fruits, vegetables, beans, and lentils provide carbohydrates along with antioxidants and phytochemicals that support overall health.

Contrary to popular belief, potatoes are not inherently unhealthy. Preparation matters. A baked potato with its skin offers potassium, vitamin C, and fiber, whereas deep-fried potatoes or heavily buttered mashed potatoes provide considerably more calories and saturated fat.

Many older adults find that emphasizing minimally processed carbohydrates improves energy levels and helps maintain stable blood sugar throughout the day.

Fiber: The Unsung Hero

Fiber is one of the most overlooked nutrients in the American diet, yet it becomes increasingly important with age.

Digestive motility naturally slows as we grow older. Physical inactivity, inadequate fluid intake, and medications—including opioid pain relievers, some antidepressants, calcium supplements, and certain blood pressure medications—can further contribute to constipation.

Fiber helps keep the digestive system functioning normally by increasing stool bulk and promoting regular bowel movements. But its benefits extend well beyond the gastrointestinal tract.

A high-fiber diet lowers LDL (“bad”) cholesterol, slows glucose absorption, improves blood sugar control, supports healthy gut bacteria, and increases feelings of fullness, helping many people maintain a healthy weight.

Current recommendations suggest approximately 30 grams of fiber daily for older men and about 21 grams for older women, although most Americans consume substantially less.

Good sources include fresh fruits, vegetables, legumes, oats, bran cereals, nuts, seeds, and whole grains.

Fiber should always be increased gradually while maintaining adequate fluid intake. Without sufficient water, increasing fiber can actually worsen constipation.

Healthy Fats Continue to Matter

Fat remains an essential nutrient throughout life.

Healthy fats provide energy, help build cell membranes, assist in hormone production, reduce inflammation, and allow absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Perhaps most importantly, healthy fats support cardiovascular health, an increasingly important consideration with advancing age.

Monounsaturated fats found in olive oil, avocados, almonds, pecans, pistachios, and peanuts remain among the healthiest dietary choices.

Particularly valuable are the marine omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA found in salmon, trout, sardines, herring, and mackerel. Numerous studies have shown that these fats lower triglyceride levels and are associated with improved cardiovascular health. Some research also suggests they may help preserve cognitive function, although evidence remains mixed.

Plant sources such as flaxseed, chia seeds, walnuts, and canola oil provide alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), another beneficial omega-3 fatty acid.

By contrast, trans fats should be avoided whenever possible, while saturated fats from fatty meats, butter, and highly processed foods are best consumed in moderation.

Hydration: The Forgotten Nutrient

Water is not technically a nutrient, yet it may be one of the most important components of healthy aging.

Older adults are especially vulnerable to dehydration for several reasons. The sensation of thirst becomes less reliable with age, kidney function changes, and many medications—including diuretics—promote fluid loss. Some older individuals intentionally drink less because of concerns about urinary urgency or nighttime trips to the bathroom.

Even mild dehydration can produce fatigue, headaches, dizziness, constipation, confusion, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and an increased risk of falls.

Unlike younger adults, older people should not rely solely on thirst as a signal for their fluid needs.

Most healthy older adults benefit from drinking fluids consistently throughout the day. Water is the best choice, but milk, tea, coffee, soups, and water-rich foods such as melons, oranges, cucumbers, tomatoes, and berries all contribute to hydration.

The color of the urine offers a practical guide. Pale yellow generally indicates adequate hydration, whereas dark yellow urine often suggests that additional fluids are needed, although certain medications and vitamins can alter urine color.

Calcium, Vitamin D, and Bone Health

Bone is living tissue that is constantly remodeled throughout life. With age, bone breakdown gradually exceeds bone formation, increasing the risk of osteoporosis and fractures.

Adequate calcium remains important, but vitamin D is equally critical because it enables calcium absorption from the intestine. Unfortunately, aging skin produces less vitamin D in response to sunlight, and many older adults spend less time outdoors.

Dairy products, fortified plant milks, canned salmon with bones, and leafy green vegetables contribute calcium, while fatty fish and fortified foods provide modest amounts of vitamin D.

Because deficiency is common, many physicians recommend vitamin D supplementation based on blood test results.

Vitamin B12: A Common but Often Silent Deficiency

Vitamin B12 deserves special attention because deficiency becomes increasingly common after age 60.

Normal absorption requires adequate stomach acid to separate vitamin B12 from proteins in food. Aging, along with medications such as proton pump inhibitors and metformin, often reduces stomach acidity.

Symptoms may develop gradually and include fatigue, numbness or tingling in the hands and feet, difficulty walking, poor balance, memory problems, depression, and anemia.

Fortunately, crystalline vitamin B12 found in supplements and fortified foods bypasses many of these absorption problems and is highly effective in preventing or correcting deficiency.

Do Supplements Become More Important?

For many older adults, the answer is yes—but only selectively.

The ideal source of nutrition remains a balanced diet rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, lean proteins, dairy or fortified alternatives, nuts, seeds, and healthy oils. Foods contain thousands of biologically active compounds that supplements cannot fully replicate.

Nevertheless, certain supplements become increasingly useful as people age.

Vitamin D is among the most commonly recommended because deficiency is widespread and can adversely affect bone and muscle health. Vitamin B12 supplementation is appropriate for many older adults, particularly those taking metformin or acid-suppressing medications or those with laboratory evidence of deficiency.

Calcium supplements may be useful when dietary intake is inadequate, although obtaining calcium from food is generally preferred because large supplemental doses have been associated with possible cardiovascular concerns.

Protein powders and ready-to-drink nutritional shakes can help individuals with poor appetite, difficulty chewing, chronic illness, or increased protein requirements. Whey protein is especially effective because of its high leucine content.

Omega-3 supplements may benefit individuals who rarely consume fish, although eating fish remains the preferred strategy.

One supplement attracting increasing attention is creatine monohydrate. Long used by athletes, creatine has substantial evidence supporting its ability to improve muscle strength and enhance the benefits of resistance exercise in older adults. When taken in appropriate doses by healthy individuals, it appears remarkably safe, though people with significant kidney disease should consult their physician before using it.

In contrast, the evidence for many heavily marketed anti-aging supplements—including collagen powders, testosterone boosters, proprietary muscle blends, and high-dose antioxidant formulas—is considerably weaker. Some may offer modest benefits in selected circumstances, but many lack rigorous scientific support.

See my earlier post for more information: Supplement Smarts: What Seniors Should Know Before Reaching for That Bottle

Eating for Health, Not Simply Longevity

Nutrition is not about adding years to life alone. It is about adding life to those years.

A healthy diet cannot stop aging, but it can influence how well we age. Adequate protein helps preserve muscle and independence. Healthy carbohydrates provide steady energy. Fiber supports digestive and cardiovascular health. Unsaturated fats protect the heart and nourish the brain. Proper hydration reduces illness and maintains physical and mental function. Carefully selected supplements can fill nutritional gaps when food alone is insufficient.

Perhaps the most encouraging news is that it is never too late to benefit. Studies consistently show that older adults who improve their diet, remain physically active, and maintain adequate protein intake can increase muscle strength, improve balance, reduce the risk of chronic disease, and enhance quality of life—even well into their seventies, eighties, and beyond.

The old saying that “you are what you eat” may oversimplify nutrition, but it captures an enduring truth. As the years accumulate, every meal becomes another opportunity to nourish not just the body, but the ability to continue living fully, independently, and well.

Medical Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is intended for general educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. It should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Always seek the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here. 

If you are experiencing a medical emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number immediately.

The author of this article is a licensed physician, but the views expressed here are solely those of the author and do not represent the official position of any hospital, health system, or medical organization with which the author may be affiliated.

Image generated by author using ChatGPT.

References

Bauer J, Biolo G, Cederholm T, et al. Evidence-Based Recommendations for Optimal Dietary Protein Intake in Older People. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2013.

Deutz NEP, Bauer JM, Barazzoni R, et al. Protein intake and exercise for optimal muscle function with aging. Clinical Nutrition. 2014.

Volpi E, Campbell WW, Dwyer JT, et al. Is the Optimal Level of Protein Intake for Older Adults Greater Than the Recommended Dietary Allowance? The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2013.

U.S. Department of Agriculture & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2025–2030. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov

National Institute on Aging. Healthy Eating As You Get Older. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/healthy-eating

National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov

European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN). Guideline on Clinical Nutrition and Hydration in Geriatrics. https://www.espen.org

Trump, MAGA, and the Politics of Permission

By

On July 18, 2026

In Commentary, Politics

Donald Trump did not invent a new American bigotry. He did something more subtle—and perhaps more consequential. He transformed long-standing resentments into a political identity and gave many people permission to express views they had previously kept private.

The central question surrounding the Make America Great Again movement is: has it created a new ethical worldview, or has it simply exposed attitudes that have long existed beneath the surface of American society? The answer is probably: both.

The resentments themselves are not new. Long before Trump entered politics, historians and political scientists documented the enduring influence of racial resentment, nativism, religious nationalism, and cultural anxiety. Many Americans believed their country was changing too quickly and that immigration, globalization, and shifting social norms threatened a way of life they once took for granted.

American history offers countless examples. Anti-immigrant movements flourished in the nineteenth century. Segregation and white supremacy were embedded in law for generations. George Wallace’s “law and order” campaigns, Pat Buchanan’s culture-war speeches, and the Tea Party’s reaction to Barack Obama’s presidency all reflected recurring fears that “real America” was slipping away.

Obama’s election encouraged hopes that the nation had entered a post-racial era, yet research continued to show that racial and cultural anxieties remained powerful undercurrents. Trump did not create those sentiments. He recognized them, embraced them, and gave them a simple narrative.

“Make America Great Again” is more than a campaign slogan. It tells a story of loss, restoration, and retribution. It suggests that something valuable has been taken away and that reclaiming it is both necessary and morally justified. For many supporters, it became less about policy than identity.

Trump’s most significant innovation was not ideological but cultural. Previous politicians often relied on coded language while preserving at least the appearance of restraint. Trump discarded those conventions. He mocked opponents, encouraged inflammatory chants, proposed banning Muslims from entering the country, and described immigrants as “poisoning the blood” of America. Many supporters interpreted this not as recklessness but as authenticity—a rejection of what they viewed as the constraints of political correctness.

That shift changed more than political rhetoric. It altered the boundaries of acceptable public behavior. Conduct once viewed as disqualifying became, for many supporters, evidence of courage and honesty. Loyalty increasingly outweighed character. Offending critics became proof that one was willing to stand up to elite opinion.

Political scientists describe this process as norm erosion. Laws remain the same, but the unwritten rules governing public life gradually weaken. Loyalty becomes more important than truth, institutions are trusted only when they favor one’s own side, and democratic restraints come to be seen as obstacles rather than safeguards.

Trump did not invent this dynamic. Populist movements throughout history have divided society into virtuous insiders and corrupt outsiders. His contribution was to make that style of politics a daily spectacle. Political conflict became a struggle between patriots and traitors, real Americans and dangerous enemies. Once politics is framed in existential terms, compromise becomes betrayal and restraint begins to look like weakness.

It would be inaccurate to say Trump created prejudice from nothing. A more persuasive argument is that he reduced the social cost of expressing it. Social norms matter because they define the boundaries of acceptable conduct. When prominent public figures use inflammatory language or repeat conspiracy theories without losing support from their followers, those boundaries inevitably shift.

Supporters who might once have hesitated can now dismiss criticism as media bias or political correctness. The line between prejudice and plain speaking becomes increasingly blurred.

This may prove to be Trump’s most enduring legacy. Even if his personal political influence fades, the standards governing public discourse may not return to where they once were. Future politicians can imitate the style—its confrontation, norm-breaking, and appeals to grievance—even if they reject parts of Trump’s agenda.

That is why the distinction between creating prejudice and legitimizing it matters. If Trump merely invented these impulses, defeating one political leader might solve the problem. But if he tapped into deeper currents already present in American society, then the challenge extends far beyond one election.

Trump is best understood as both symptom and accelerant. He gave shape to existing resentments, transformed them into a powerful political identity, and lowered the barriers against openly expressing them. The prejudices themselves were not new. The confidence with which they could be publicly displayed—and sometimes celebrated—was.

Whether that change proves temporary or enduring may become one of the defining questions facing American democracy.

The Golden Age That Never Was

By

On July 14, 2026

In Commentary, History, Politics

How the Myth of 1950s America Is Being Weaponized by the Modern Right

Not long ago, I was sitting in a waiting room waiting to get an X-ray done. They had MeTV on the television and Leave It To Beaver was playing. You know, the classic 1950s television show where dad went to work, mom stayed at home and did housework while wearing pearls, a dress and heels, and the kids were well behaved even though they may occasionally have been “scamps”. Few ideas exert a stronger pull on the American imagination than the belief that there was once a lost golden age—a time when the nation was more prosperous, more moral, more unified, and more secure than it is today.

Ask most Americans when the country was at its best and there’s a decent chance you’ll hear something like: ” the ’50s.” Clean neighborhoods. Stable families. Everyone going to church on Sunday. One income paying the bills. It’s a seductive image and it’s one that right-wing politicians and evangelical leaders have been selling hard for decades. The only problem is that it was never the whole truth. In 2025, the effort to resurrect that selective memory began the move from campaign rhetoric into actual governance.

Let’s take a close look at the mythology of postwar America and examine what the 1940s and 1950s actually looked like for the millions of Americans excluded from the postcard image and explore how modern conservative politicians and religious leaders are drawing on that mythology to reshape the country today.

The Legend: America’s Postwar Paradise

It’s easy to understand the emotional pull. After the trauma of World War II and the deprivation of the Great Depression, the late 1940s and 1950s did, for a particular slice of America, offer something genuinely new: suburban homes, new cars, television sets, and a sense of safety and prosperity that earlier generations couldn’t have imagined. For white, middle-class families in the northern and midwestern United States, the GI Bill opened the door to homeownership and college education. Real wages rose. Life expectancy improved. The birth rate climbed.

Televisions went from being owned by 12 percent of households in 1950 to over 90 percent by the end of the decade and beamed idealized domestic life straight into living rooms across the country. Programs like Father Knows Best and, of course, Leave It to Beaver were essentially aspirational advertising. Nobody was poor. Nobody was Black. Nobody was gay. Nobody was confused. Everyone’s lawn was neatly trimmed and their problems resolved in 22 minutes.

It is worth acknowledging that aspects of this nostalgia reflect real experience for a limited few. The cultural stability and sense of community that many Americans remember from the era were genuine features of daily life for some people in some places. Writer Alan Ehrenhalt, who wrote extensively about 1950s Chicago neighborhoods, documented the authentic bonds people formed and the coherent community life that anchored their lives. The nostalgia is not entirely manufactured. But the question is: whose nostalgia counts, and who pays the price for making it policy?

The Reality Check: Who Got Left Out

Here is what the postcard left out: the United States of the 1950s was a country of legally enforced racial segregation, economic exclusion, and profound gender inequality. It was, in many respects, a country operating an unofficial domestic system of apartheid.

Jim Crow laws governed daily life for Black Americans from the post-Reconstruction era through the mid-1960s. Schools, workplaces, public transportation, medical facilities, and parks were racially segregated across the South and informally segregated in much of the North. Poll taxes and literacy tests suppressed Black voting. Vagrancy laws effectively criminalized unemployment among Black men. Physical terror, including lynching and the threat of violence, was used as a tool of social control.

Black Americans in the 1950s faced a starkly different economic reality than white Americans. Discriminatory lending practices, including the federally sanctioned “redlining” that denied mortgages to Black families in certain zip codes, locked millions out of the very suburban prosperity that defines the nostalgic image of the era. The GI Bill, widely celebrated as the engine of postwar middle-class expansion, was administered locally and largely excluded Black veterans in the South through discriminatory implementation.

Women fared little better by today’s standards. The idealization of the 1950s housewife conceals the coercive nature of women’s domestic confinement in that era. Women were largely excluded from professional careers, could not obtain credit cards in their own names until 1974, and faced deeply limited legal recourse against workplace discrimination or domestic violence. The image of the contented housewife was, for many women, less a personal choice than the only option available to them.

The economy itself was more volatile than the mythology suggests. The United States suffered four recessions between 1949 and 1960. Average GDP growth during the Eisenhower years ran at about 2.5 percent — respectable, but hardly the sustained boom of legend. And when measured by real GDP per capita in today’s dollars, the average American is roughly 3.7 times better off financially now than in 1955, which complicates the argument that things were economically superior back then.

The period was also marked by intense Cold War anxiety. Americans conducted nuclear attack drills in schools and lived with the constant fear of atomic war. I can remember the “duck and cover” drills that we had in school, as if hiding under our desk would protect us from a nuclear blast. The era also witnessed the rise of McCarthyism, during which accusations of communist sympathies, most without proof, damaged careers and chilled political dissent.

In this version of history, America was once united, moral, prosperous, and respected. Something then went wrong—often identified as secularization, feminism, immigration, globalization, civil rights activism, cultural liberalism, or government expansion. The nation’s challenges are therefore attributed not to complex economic and social forces but to a departure from traditional values.

Building the Myth: The Role of Religion and Cold War Politics

One of the most significant and least understood aspects of 1950s nostalgia is how deliberately constructed it was at the time. The “Christian America” that modern evangelical conservatives point to as a foundational model was, in large part, a Cold War invention.

Historian Kevin Kruse, in his book “One Nation Under God,” documents in detail how business, political, and religious leaders worked during the 1940s and 1950s to fuse Christianity with American national identity in an explicit effort to distinguish the United States from “godless communism.” The phrase “under God” was inserted into the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954 following a lobbying campaign by the Knights of Columbus. “In God We Trust” was adopted as the national motto in 1956, replacing the unofficial but far more pluralistic “E Pluribus Unum” — “Out of Many, One.” Both initiatives had the explicit goal of defining American identity through religious contrast with the Soviet Union, not of recovering some ancient tradition.

President Eisenhower was the central political figure in this fusion of piety and patriotism. Though he had little religious affiliation for most of his life, in 1953 he was baptized in the Presbyterian Church and became active in what historians called the “religious revival” of 1950s America.  He signed the National Association of Evangelicals’ “Statement of Seven Divine Freedoms” in 1953 and became what many regarded as a symbolic pastor-in-chief. The Advertising Council ran a nationwide “Religion in American Life” campaign encouraging church attendance. Corporate America joined in: Walt Disney incorporated explicitly patriotic and religious themes into his Anaheim park. The annual National Prayer Breakfast was institutionalized. Presidential speeches began ending with “God bless America” as a matter of course.

Kruse is careful to note that this represented something genuinely new, not the recovery of something original. The “Christian founding” narrative so beloved by modern evangelical conservatives is, in his assessment, more myth than history. What the 1950s actually produced was a strategic civil religion built for Cold War propaganda — a useful fiction that has since been mistaken for ancient truth.

For many voters, such appeals are less about historical accuracy than emotional reassurance. They promise stability amid rapid change and offer a sense of continuity in a world that often feels uncertain.

The Political Machinery: From Reagan to MAGA

“Make America Great Again” is not, as many people assume, a phrase that originated with Donald Trump. Ronald Reagan used it extensively during his 1980 presidential campaign. Its emotional logic — that there was a better time, that it was taken from us, that we can return to it — has been a structural feature of American right-wing politics for at least four decades.

What Trump did was amplify it and make the temporal reference more explicit. When pressed, Trump has pointed to the late 1940s and 1950s as the era he has in mind as a model of national greatness. And his supporters appear to share that view. A 2024 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) found that approximately 70 percent of Republicans believe that America’s culture and way of life has changed for the worse since the 1950s.

That survey finding is worth thinking about. Seven in ten members of one of the nation’s two major political parties believe the country was better when segregation was legal, women couldn’t get a credit card, and McCarthyism was destroying careers on the basis of rumor and suspicion. The longing is, of course, more selective than that, most of those respondents are thinking of the community, stability, and cultural coherence of the era, not its injustices. But the political machinery that exploits that nostalgia does not make those fine distinctions.

Project 2025, the 900-page policy blueprint produced by the Heritage Foundation and dozens of allied conservative organizations, is perhaps the most systematic expression of this restorationist project. Its stated goals include restoring “the family as the centerpiece of American life,” reducing federal government size, centralizing executive power, and returning to what it calls “foundational values.” The document explicitly frames the current moment as a crisis requiring urgent corrective action to restore something that has been lost: a rhetorical structure that assumes the loss of a golden past as its premise.

The Evangelical Revival: Reclaiming a Nation That Never Quite Was

For evangelical Christians in the MAGA coalition, the 1950s hold special significance because of the Eisenhower-era fusion of Christianity and national identity. The addition of “under God” to the Pledge and “In God We Trust” to the currency are treated as evidence of a deep historical tradition — proof that America has “always” been a Christian nation. As one analysis published in Mere Orthodoxy noted, among proponents of Christian nationalism, there is broad agreement that “the cultural Christianity of the Eisenhower era presents a model to which we should aspire.”

The political ambitions of this movement are not subtle. During the first year of Trump’s second term, a series of executive orders moved explicitly toward institutionalizing evangelical Christian priorities within the federal government. One established a task force to “eradicate Christian bias” from government. Another created a White House Faith Office. A third established a Religious Liberty Commission. The rhetorical framing was consistently restorative — “bringing back” religion, returning to foundational truths, recovering what was lost.

What this narrative omits, as historians of religion have carefully documented, is that the “Christian America” of the 1950s was itself a political construction, not an inherited tradition. The founders were, at best, a religiously mixed group whose Enlightenment-influenced constitutional framework was deliberately secular. As Americans United for Separation of Church and State ha noted, the Cold War-era religious symbols that Christian nationalists now treat as bedrock tradition would have been unfamiliar and to the actual founders.

The 1950s that evangelicals and Christian nationalists embrace as a Christian model was also the decade that ended with Supreme Court rulings in 1962 and 1963 prohibiting sponsored prayer and Bible reading in public schools. From the Christian nationalist perspective, those rulings mark the beginning of America’s moral decline. Which means the golden age they want to restore existed for, at most, a few years before it was, by their own account, already being dismantled.

Nostalgia as a Political Tool: The Psychology Behind the Appeal

None of this is to say that nostalgia is inherently dishonest or manipulative. Research in psychology consistently shows that people misremember the past by emphasizing positive personal experiences and filtering out context that complicates the picture. This is normal human cognition, not bad faith. For working-class white Americans who experienced the 1950s as a period of genuine stability and upward mobility, the memory is not false. The problem arises when personal memory is converted into universal history and then into policy prescription.

Political movements have always understood the emotional power of a remembered golden age. The appeal to restoration allows politicians to diagnose the present as fallen and to promise recovery without having to specify precisely what they’re recovering. It is a rhetorically flexible tool: it can mean lower taxes, stronger churches, tougher borders, whiter neighborhoods, or simply the vague sense that things made more sense once and someone took them away from you. The ambiguity is a feature, not a bug. It allows a coalition of people with different specific grievances to unite around a shared emotional posture.

What makes the current moment distinctive is the ambition and specificity of the institutional project. Earlier iterations of “Make America Great Again” were largely rhetorical. Project 2025, Christian nationalism’s White House offices, and the executive order campaign of Trump’s second term represent an attempt to translate nostalgic sentiment into durable structural change. The mythology is no longer just a campaign slogan. It is becoming, or attempting to become, a governing framework.

What Gets Left Out When We Go Back

The practical consequences of any serious attempt to restore something like 1950s governance deserve direct examination. The America of that era did not inadvertently exclude Black citizens, women, LGBTQ+ Americans, and religious minorities from full participation in public life. It excluded them by law and by deliberate institutional design. Any genuine “return” to the social order of that era would require actively undoing the legal and social progress of the intervening seven decades.

Some elements of the contemporary right’s agenda move explicitly in that direction: challenges to voting rights provisions, rollbacks of civil rights protections for LGBTQ+ Americans, attacks on DEI programs, restrictions on reproductive autonomy, and pressure on the constitutional separation of church and state. Whether these specific policies will achieve their stated goals is a matter of legitimate political debate. But the historical record of the 1950s for the Americans who were not white, male, heterosexual, and Protestant is not ambiguous. For them it was not a golden age, not even close.

Perhaps the most honest thing one can say about the 1950s is what the historical record shows: it was a complex, contradictory decade. For some Americans, it genuinely offered stability, community, and opportunity. For others, it was a system of legal oppression maintained by violence and economic exclusion. Both things are true. A serious engagement with the era requires recognizing that contradiction. A political mythology that acknowledges only one of those truths is not history. It is propaganda.

A Final Thought

The golden age of America is a powerful story. It has the great advantage of being partly true — enough to feel authentic to those who experienced it, enough to resonate with people who wish the present were simpler and more coherent. But it is a partial truth that has been shaped, amplified, and in some cases invented to serve political ends. The religious symbolism of the Eisenhower era was a Cold War construction, not an ancient tradition. The prosperity of the postwar years was real for some but radically unequal. The community stability that people remember was purchased, in part, through the enforced subordination of millions of Americans.

Understanding all of this doesn’t require abandoning the genuine good things of that era — community, stability, the importance of family and neighborhood. It requires being honest about the terms on which those good things were available and for whom. And it requires asking whether the politicians and religious leaders invoking that era’s memory are interested in what made it work for many Americans and extending those benefits to everyone, or whether they are more interested in what made it work specifically for white, Christian, heterosexual men.

History does not go backward. But it can be selectively remembered in ways that carry serious consequences for the present. That is worth thinking carefully about.

Sources

1. Petit, K. (2025). “The Myth of the American Golden Age.” Medium

2. Cochrane, J. H. (2026). “The 1950s: A Not-So-Golden Age.” Coolidge Review

3. Kabaservice, G. (2025). “Populism and Working-Class Nostalgia for the 1950s.” Niskanen Center

4. Americans United for Separation of Church and State. (2020). “Trapped in a Time Warp: Christian Nationalists Pine for the 1950s.” au.org

5. Fea, J. (2015). “One Nation Under God.” Review of Kruse, K., “One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America.” Christianity Today

6. Americans United for Separation of Church and State. (2025). “In God We Trust: Don’t Blame It on the Founders.” au.org

7. Baptist News Global. (2023). “Christian Nationalism: How Evangelical Christianity Became a Political Religion.” baptistnews.com

8. Homeaddict.io. (2025). “19 Myths About the 1950s.” homeaddict.io

9. Mitchell, D. (2024). “The 1950s Economic Golden Age Is a Myth.” Foundation for Economic Education

10. ACLU. (2026). “Project 2025, Explained.” aclu.org

11. Heritage Foundation. (2023). “Mandate for Leadership: The Conservative Promise.” heritage.org

12. Salon.com. (2025). “Trump’s MAGA Coalition Is Showing Cracks Over Religion.” salon.com

13. Mere Orthodoxy. (2024). “The ‘New’ Christian Nationalism.” mereorthodoxy.com

14. Oxford Academic. (2024). “Jim Crow and Black Economic Progress after Slavery.” Quarterly Journal of Economics. academic.oup.com

15. Newsweek. (2026). “Project 2025 Group Has Plan for Next 250 Years of America.” newsweek.com

When the Body’s Blueprint Has a Flaw: A Look at Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome

By

On July 10, 2026

In Medicine

Understanding the Disorder

Most people have heard of arthritis, lupus, or osteoporosis, but relatively few recognize the name Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS). Yet this group of inherited connective tissue disorders affects thousands of people worldwide and can profoundly alter nearly every aspect of daily life. For some, it means unusually flexible joints and chronic pain. For others, it carries the risk of ruptured blood vessels or internal organs. Between these extremes lies a remarkably diverse family of disorders that illustrates just how important the body’s structural framework truly is.

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is not a single disease but a collection of thirteen recognized hereditary disorders that share one common feature: abnormalities in connective tissue. Connective tissue forms the body’s internal scaffolding, providing strength, flexibility, and support to the skin, joints, blood vessels, ligaments, tendons, and many internal organs. When this framework is weakened, the effects can extend throughout the body.

Although EDS has long been considered rare, growing awareness and improved diagnostic methods suggest it may be more common than previously believed. Many individuals spend years seeking an explanation for symptoms that are dismissed as unrelated or attributed to anxiety, chronic pain syndromes, or simple clumsiness. Increased recognition has begun shortening this diagnostic journey, but many patients still experience significant delays before receiving an accurate diagnosis.

The Biology Behind EDS

At the heart of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body. Collagen functions much like the steel reinforcing bars embedded within concrete. It gives tissues strength while allowing them to remain flexible enough to move without tearing.

Collagen is found almost everywhere, including the skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bones, blood vessels, intestines, and the protective coverings surrounding many organs. Multiple genes direct the production, assembly, and maintenance of collagen fibers and other components of the extracellular matrix—the microscopic framework that supports cells throughout the body.

In EDS, inherited genetic mutations interfere with this process. Depending on which gene is affected, collagen may be produced incorrectly, assembled improperly, or fail to provide adequate structural support. The resulting weakness affects whichever tissues rely most heavily on the defective protein.

The pattern of inheritance varies among the different forms of EDS. Many are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion, meaning that a child has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the disorder if one parent carries the abnormal gene. Other forms are autosomal recessive, requiring defective copies from both parents, while some cases result from entirely new mutations with no previous family history.

One notable exception remains the most common subtype: hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (hEDS). Despite years of intensive research, no single genetic mutation has yet been identified. As a result, hEDS remains a clinical diagnosis based on characteristic symptoms and examination findings rather than laboratory confirmation. Identifying its underlying genetic basis is one of the major goals of current EDS research.

The syndrome bears the names of two physicians who helped characterize it in the early twentieth century: Danish dermatologist Edvard Ehlers and French physician Henri-Alexandre Danlos.

A Family of Disorders

The 2017 International Classification recognizes thirteen distinct forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. While all involve connective tissue abnormalities, each subtype has its own characteristic pattern of symptoms and complications.

Hypermobile EDS

Hypermobile EDS is by far the most frequently diagnosed subtype. Its defining features include generalized joint hypermobility, chronic musculoskeletal pain, and varying degrees of skin involvement. Individuals may be able to bend their fingers, elbows, knees, or spine far beyond the normal range of motion.

Although hypermobility can appear impressive, it often comes at a significant cost. Joints that move too freely lack stability, making them prone to sprains, partial dislocations, and complete dislocations during everyday activities. Chronic pain and fatigue frequently become the most disabling aspects of the disorder.

Many people with hypermobile EDS also experience additional conditions that appear to occur more frequently than expected. These include disorders of the autonomic nervous system, particularly postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), gastrointestinal motility problems, chronic headaches, and persistent fatigue. Researchers continue to investigate why these conditions commonly occur together.

Classical EDS

Classical EDS primarily affects the skin and joints. It usually results from mutations involving genes responsible for type V collagen.

Patients typically have remarkably soft, velvety skin that stretches much farther than normal before returning to its original position. Wounds often heal poorly, producing thin, widened scars sometimes described as “cigarette-paper scars.” Easy bruising is common, and even relatively minor injuries may leave permanent marks.

Joint hypermobility is also a prominent feature, although the degree varies considerably from person to person.

Vascular EDS

Among all forms of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, vascular EDS is the most serious. It results from mutations affecting type III collagen, an important structural protein within blood vessel walls and many internal organs.

Unlike the dramatic flexibility often seen in hypermobile EDS, patients with vascular EDS may have only mild joint laxity, usually involving the small joints of the hands and feet. Instead, the major concern is tissue fragility.

Arteries may develop aneurysms, tears, or spontaneous ruptures. The intestines and uterus are also unusually fragile, creating life-threatening medical emergencies that often occur without warning.

Many individuals with vascular EDS also have recognizable physical characteristics, including thin translucent skin, prominent veins, a narrow nose, thin lips, and relatively large, prominent eyes. These findings, however, are not present in every patient.

The Rarer Forms

The remaining subtypes are uncommon, with some documented in only a small number of families worldwide.

Kyphoscoliotic EDS often presents during infancy with severe muscle weakness and progressive curvature of the spine. Arthrochalasia EDS causes profound joint instability beginning at birth, while dermatosparaxis EDS produces exceptionally fragile, sagging skin that tears easily.

Other rare forms primarily affect the eyes, heart valves, muscles, teeth, or periodontal tissues. Although individually uncommon, these disorders illustrate how connective tissue supports virtually every organ system in the body.

One Disease, Many Presentations

One of the greatest challenges in understanding Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is its extraordinary variability. Even individuals carrying the same genetic mutation may experience dramatically different symptoms and levels of disability. Some remain physically active with relatively mild limitations, while others develop chronic pain, repeated joint injuries, or life-threatening vascular complications.

This wide spectrum often complicates diagnosis. Physicians unfamiliar with EDS may not immediately recognize that seemingly unrelated symptoms—frequent sprains, digestive problems, easy bruising, chronic fatigue, headaches, and dizziness—can all stem from a single underlying connective tissue disorder.

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome occupies a peculiar position in medicine: common enough that most physicians will encounter it, but rare enough — and complex enough — that many will misidentify it or underestimate it. As awareness grows and genetic testing becomes more accessible, diagnostic delays are slowly shortening.

For patients living with EDS today, the message is mixed but not without hope. For most, a normal lifespan is likely, though the journey will require proactive self-advocacy, knowledgeable medical partnerships, and real-world adaptation. For those with vascular EDS, the risks are serious and demand vigilance — but even here, the medical community is making progress.

Recognizing these patterns is the first step toward appropriate treatment. Although EDS cannot currently be cured, an accurate diagnosis allows patients and physicians to anticipate complications, tailor therapy, and improve long-term quality of life.

For a more detailed discussion of EDS, contact me at WWW.grumpydocwv@gmail.com

Medical Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is intended for general educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. It should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Always seek the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here. 

If you are experiencing a medical emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number immediately.

The author of this article is a licensed physician, but the views expressed here are solely those of the author and do not represent the official position of any hospital, health system, or medical organization with which the author may be affiliated.

Illustration Generated by author using ChatGPT.

Sources and Further Reading:

Note: The 2017 diagnostic classification is the current standard; updated criteria are expected in 2026.

1. Francomano et al. (2024). Research advances in EDS. Frontiers in Medicine

2. Ritelli & Colombi (2020). Molecular Genetics and Pathogenesis of EDS. Genes, MDPI

3. Zschocke et al. (2024). Genetic diagnosis of EDS. Medical Genetics / NIH

4. StatPearls: Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (2023). NCBI Bookshelf

5. GeneReviews: Classic EDS (updated 2024). NCBI Bookshelf

6. GeneReviews: Vascular EDS (updated 2025). NCBI Bookshelf

7. MedlinePlus Genetics: Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome. NIH MedlinePlus

8. Cleveland Clinic: EDS Overview. my.clevelandclinic.org

9. Cleveland Clinic: Vascular EDS. my.clevelandclinic.org

10. Medscape: EDS Background and Pathophysiology. emedicine.medscape.com

11. MSD Manual Professional: EDS in Pediatrics. msdmanuals.com

12. Frank et al. (2019). Vascular EDS: Long-Term Observational Study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology / ScienceDirect

13. Case Report: Novel COL3A1 mutation in vEDS. PMC / NCBI

14. EDS Society: The Road to 2026. eds.clinic

15. EDS Society: Life Expectancy in EDS. eds.clinic

The House That Trump Built: Is MAGA a Political Movement or a Cult of Personality?

By

On July 7, 2026

In Commentary, Politics

The word “cult” is often tossed around in American politics as little more than an insult. But dismissing it outright may obscure something real. When political scientists and psychologists begin applying the term with specificity—pointing to identifiable patterns of behavior and belief—it deserves more than a reflexive eye roll. The question is not whether “cult” is too strong a word for the MAGA movement. The question is whether the label, used carefully, helps explain what we are actually seeing.

Start with the basics. Psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton’s early work on cults emphasized three elements: a charismatic leader, mechanisms for sustaining loyalty, and a degree of devotion that overrides independent judgment. More recently, Steven Hassan’s “BITE” model—Behavior, Information, Thought, and Emotional control—has attempted to map how high-control groups shape members’ reality. Critics are right to note that these frameworks can be stretched too far. Not every cohesive political movement is a cult. But when multiple criteria begin to align, the comparison becomes harder to dismiss.

Consider first the role of Donald Trump. Charismatic leadership, as Max Weber described it, is not mere popularity. It is authority rooted in personal magnetism so strong that followers treat the leader as a primary source of truth. Trump’s political durability rests precisely on this dynamic. His supporters routinely absorb claims—about elections, public health, or crime—that have been widely discredited, not by rejecting evidence outright but by reinterpreting his statements as strategic, symbolic, or justified. When factual accuracy becomes secondary to loyalty, something deeper than conventional partisanship is at work.

Equally telling is how dissent is handled. Political movements always enforce boundaries, but MAGA does so with unusual speed and severity. Figures once central to Trump’s orbit can be recast as enemies almost overnight for the crime of deviation. This is not simply hardball politics; it is a system of social discipline that rewards conformity and punishes independence. The effect is to narrow the range of acceptable thought until disagreement itself becomes suspect.

The movement’s identity reinforces this dynamic. Its symbols—hats, flags, slogans—and its tightly aligned media ecosystem create a sense of belonging that goes well beyond policy preferences. Again, that is not unique. But what is unusual is how consistently that identity orbits a single individual rather than a consistent set of ideas. Positions that were once staples of conservative ideology—on trade, foreign policy, even the role of government—have shifted as Trump’s own positions have shifted. That kind of ideological fluidity is less characteristic of a political program than of a personality-centered movement.

None of this settles the question definitively. There are good reasons many scholars resist the “cult” label. MAGA is not a secluded sect cut off from society; it is a mass political force with institutional power and millions of participants who live ordinary lives. Applying the term too loosely risks draining it of meaning. But rejecting it entirely risks ignoring the extent to which loyalty to an individual has, at times, eclipsed loyalty to institutions, principles, or even observable reality.

What is harder to dispute is the movement’s psychological core. MAGA is not primarily a policy agenda; it is an emotional alignment organized around grievance, distrust, and a sense of cultural dispossession that is channeled through a single dominant figure. Whether one calls that a cult or an extreme form of political tribalism may be, in the end, a matter of vocabulary. The underlying structure is what matters.

That brings us to the more consequential question: what happens when the figure at the center is gone. History offers three broad paths for movements built on charismatic authority: succession, fragmentation, or decline. Durable movements typically have two things MAGA lacks—a clear heir and a body of doctrine that can survive the founder. Trump has cultivated neither. His dominance depends on being singular.

There is, however, another possibility. After death, leaders of personality-driven movements often grow more powerful as symbols than they ever were as individuals. Freed from the constraints of real-time controversy, they become vessels for projection. In that sense, Trumpism could outlast Trump even if no successor can replicate his particular hold on the electorate.

The safest conclusion is also the least comforting. MAGA is not an aberration but a familiar pattern in American political life. From McCarthyism to the John Birch Society to the Tea Party, waves of populist, personality-driven politics have risen before, each fueled by similar currents of anxiety and resentment. They recede, but they do not disappear.

So the debate over whether MAGA is a “cult” risks missing the larger point. Labels matter less than patterns. And the pattern here is clear: a movement defined less by ideas than by allegiance, less by persuasion than by identity, and less by institutions than by one man. That combination is unlikely to vanish when Trump does. It will adapt, rebrand, and return. The only real uncertainty is in what form and how prepared we will be to recognize it.

Declaring Independence: The Origin of America’s Founding Document

By

On July 4, 2026

In History

When Americans celebrate the Fourth of July, we imagine fireworks, flags, and a dramatic reading of the Declaration of Independence. We think we know the story—The Continental Congress selected Thomas Jefferson to write the declaration. He labored alone to produce this famous document. Congress then approved it unanimously and it was signed on the 4th of July.

 But the truth is far different and more complex. The story behind this iconic document—the how, who, and why of its creation—is just as explosive and illuminating as the day it represents. Far from a spontaneous outburst of rebellion, the Declaration was the product of political strategy, collaborative writing, and a shared sense of urgency among men who knew their words would change the course of history.

Setting the Stage: Why a Declaration?

By the spring of 1776, the American colonies were deep in conflict with Great Britain. Battles at Lexington and Concord had already been fought. George Washington was attempting to transform the continental army into a professional fighting force. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense had ignited widespread public support for full separation from the British Crown. The Continental Congress had been meeting in Philadelphia, debating how far they were willing to go. By June, the mood had shifted from reconciliation to revolution.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution to the Continental Congress declaring “that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” The motion was controversial—some delegates wanted more time to consult their colonies. But most in Congress knew that if independence was going to happen, it needed to be explained and justified to the world, so they created a committee to draft a formal declaration.

The Committee of Five

On June 11, 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a “Committee of Five” to write the declaration. The members were:

  • Thomas Jefferson of Virginia
  • John Adams of Massachusetts
  • Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania
  • Roger Sherman of Connecticut
  • Robert R. Livingston of New York

This was not a random selection. Each man represented a different region of the colonies and had earned the trust of fellow delegates. Jefferson was relatively young but already known for his eloquence. Adams was an outspoken advocate of independence. Franklin brought wisdom, wit, diplomatic experience, and international prestige. Sherman brought New England theological perspectives and legislative experience, while Livingston represented the more moderate New York delegation and brought keen legal insight.

Jefferson Takes the Pen

Although it was a group project on paper, the heavy lifting fell to Thomas Jefferson. The committee chose him to draft the initial version. Why Jefferson? According to John Adams, Jefferson was chosen for three reasons: he was from Virginia (the most influential colony), he was popular, and, Adams admitted, “you can write ten times better than I can.”

Jefferson wrote the draft in a rented room at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia. He leaned heavily on Enlightenment ideas, especially those of John Locke, emphasizing natural rights and the notion that government derives its power from the consent of the governed. He also borrowed phrasing from earlier colonial declarations, including his own A Summary View of the Rights of British America and borrowed extensively from George Mason’s Virginia Declaration of Rights.

The Editing Process: Group Work Gets Messy

After Jefferson completed the initial draft (likely by June 28), he shared it with Adams and Franklin. Both men suggested revisions. Franklin, ever the editor, softened some of Jefferson’s sharpest attacks and corrected language for flow and diplomacy. His most famous contribution was changing Jefferson’s phrase “We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable” to the more secular and philosophically precise “We hold these truths to be self-evident.”  

Adams contributed to structural suggestions and to tone. He also contributed to the strategic presentation of grievances against King George III, understanding that the declaration needed to justify revolution in terms that would be acceptable to both colonial readers and potential European allies.

Sherman and Livingston played more limited but still meaningful roles. Sherman, with his theological background, helped ensure the document’s religious references would appeal to Puritan New England, while Livingston’s legal expertise helped refine the constitutional arguments against British rule.  Otherwise, their involvement in the actual content of the declaration was likely minimal.

The revised draft was presented to the full Continental Congress on June 28, 1776. What followed was a few days of intense debate and revision by the entire body.

Congress Takes the Red Pen

From July 1 to July 4, the Continental Congress debated the resolution for independence and edited the Declaration. Jefferson watched as more than two dozen changes were made to his prose. The Congress cut about a quarter of the original text, including a lengthy passage condemning King George III for perpetuating the transatlantic slave trade that would have sparked deep division among the delegates, especially those from Southern colonies.

Other modifications included strengthening the religious language, toning down some of the more inflammatory rhetoric, and making the grievances more specific and legally grounded.  Congress made 86 edits, removing about a quarter of Jefferson’s original content. Jefferson was reportedly frustrated by the changes, calling them “mutilations,” but he recognized that compromise was the cost of consensus

Approval and Promulgation

Despite the extensive revisions, the core of Jefferson’s vision remained intact and on July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted in favor of Lee’s resolution for independence. That’s the actual date the colonies officially broke from Britain. John Adams even predicted in a letter to his wife that July 2 would be celebrated forever as America’s Independence Day. He was close—but the official adoption of the Declaration came two days later.

On July 4, 1776, Congress formally approved the final version of the Declaration of Independence. Contrary to popular belief, most of the signers did not sign it on that day. Only John Hancock, as president of Congress, and Charles Thomson, as secretary, signed then.   The famous handwritten version, now in the National Archives, wasn’t signed until August 2. But the document approved on July 4 was immediately printed by John Dunlap, the official printer to Congress.

These first copies, known as Dunlap Broadsides, were distributed throughout the colonies and sent to military leaders, state assemblies, and even King George III. George Washington had it read aloud to the Continental Army.  This rapid dissemination was crucial to its impact, as it was needed to rally public support for the revolutionary cause and explain the colonies’ actions to the world.

Legacy and Impact

The Declaration wasn’t just a break-up letter to the British Crown—it was a manifesto for a new kind of political order. Its assertion that “all men are created equal” would echo through centuries of American history, invoked by abolitionists, suffragists, civil rights leaders, and more.

The creation of the Declaration of Independence demonstrates that even the most iconic documents in American history emerged from collaborative processes involving compromise, revision, and collective wisdom. While Jefferson deserves primary credit for the document’s eloquent expression of revolutionary ideals, the contributions of his committee colleagues and the broader Continental Congress were essential to creating a text that could unite thirteen diverse colonies in common cause.

This collaborative origin reflects the democratic principles the declaration itself proclaimed, showing that American independence was achieved not through the vision of a single individual, but through the collective efforts of representatives working together to articulate their shared commitment to liberty, equality, and self-governance. The process that created the Declaration of Independence thus embodied the very democratic ideals it proclaimed to the world.

Today, the Declaration of Independence is enshrined as one of the foundational texts of American democracy. But it’s worth remembering that it was created under immense pressure, forged by committee, and edited by compromise. Its authors knew they were taking a dangerous step. As Franklin quipped at the signing, “We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately.”

C-Reactive Protein: The Body’s Inflammation Alarm

By

On July 3, 2026

In Medicine

Structure, Function, Testing, and Clinical Implications

If you’ve ever had blood drawn during a bout of illness or a workup for heart disease risk, there’s a decent chance your doctor ordered a C-reactive protein test, usually shortened to CRP. It’s one of the most widely ordered lab tests in the world.  CRP is one of the body’s most sensitive early-warning systems for inflammation. Understanding where it comes from, what it does, and how doctors use it reveals a lot about how the immune system operates and why chronic low-grade inflammation has become such a central concern in modern medicine.  Warning: doctor talk will follow.

A Protein With a Peculiar Origin Story

CRP was discovered almost by accident in 1930 by William Tillett and Thomas Francis, working in Oswald Avery’s laboratory at Rockefeller University. They were studying patients with acute pneumococcal pneumonia caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and noticed that blood from acutely ill patients caused a specific bacterial substance to clump together. That substance was the “C polysaccharide” in the bacterial cell wall, which gave the protein its name.

For decades CRP was used as a crude yes-or-no indicator of serious infection. It wasn’t until the late 20th century that more sensitive lab techniques revealed its value for detecting the subtle, chronic inflammation now linked to cardiovascular disease and opening a major new chapter in preventive medicine. I had been in practice for several years before I even became aware of CRP.

Shape Matters: The Five-Sided Structure of CRP

CRP belongs to a protein family called the pentraxins, named from the Greek word for “five” because of the protein’s pentagonal shape. Under an electron microscope, CRP looks like five identical subunits arranged in a ring, roughly like five coins fanned into a disc.  For history buffs, it resembles the five-star rank worn by General Eisenhower. 

Each subunit carries a binding site made of two calcium ions nestled next to a small hydrophobic pocket. This is where CRP does its recognition work: the calcium-dependent sites allow it to grab onto phosphocholine (PC), a molecule found in the membranes of damaged and dying cells, as well as in the outer coatings of many bacteria and fungi. Phosphocholine is so widespread in biology that this single binding chemistry lets CRP respond to an enormous range of threats including microbial invaders and the body’s own dead cells.

CRP doesn’t always exist in this five-subunit ring form. The pentameric version (pCRP) circulates in healthy blood. But at sites of active tissue damage, such as inside an inflamed artery wall, it can break apart into individual monomers (mCRP). These two forms turn out to have strikingly different effects on the immune system.

What CRP Does

It’s tempting to think of CRP as a passive number on a lab report, but it’s actually an active participant in the immune response. It plays at least four major roles.

First, CRP is a pattern recognition molecule. Unlike the antibodies generated by your adaptive immune system which take days or weeks to respond to a specific threat, CRP responds immediately to general molecular patterns shared by pathogens and damaged cells. This makes it a first-responder tool within the innate immune system, the body’s rapid defense network.

Second, once CRP binds to a pathogen or dying cell, it acts as an opsonin, essentially a molecular flag that says “eat this.” Immune cells called phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) recognize CRP-coated targets and engulf them, accelerating the clearance of both bacteria and cellular debris.

Third, CRP can activate the complement system, a cascade of proteins that further tags pathogens for destruction. Crucially, CRP appears to stop short of triggering the most destructive steps of that cascade. The net effect is a measured, targeted immune response rather than an all-out inflammatory assault.

Fourth, and this is where things get interesting, the pentameric and monomeric forms of CRP have opposing effects. The pentameric form in circulation is primarily anti-inflammatory, quietly clearing dead cells without triggering unnecessary immune activation. But the monomeric form that appears at sites of tissue damage can amplify inflammation: activating platelets, recruiting immune cells to vessel walls, and stimulating the release of the inflammatory signaling molecule. CRP is neither simply good nor simply bad — it’s context-dependent, functioning as a careful janitor in healthy tissue but potentially fanning the flames in already-inflamed environments.

Fast, Sensitive, and Liver-Made

CRP is produced primarily by liver cells (hepatocytes) in response to immune signals. When immune cells detect infection or tissue damage, they release cytokines, which travel to the liver and switch on CRP production.

One of CRP’s great clinical virtues is speed. Levels can begin rising within four to six hours of an inflammatory event and typically peak within 24 to 48 hours. When the inflammation resolves, CRP falls just as quickly, its half-life in circulation is only about 19 hours. This fast-on, fast-off behavior makes CRP an excellent real-time readout of what the immune system is doing right now, not weeks ago.  Because of this early availability, it is referred to as an acute phase reactant.

Under normal, non-inflammatory conditions, CRP in the blood typically measures below 1 milligram per liter (mg/L). During serious bacterial infection or major tissue injury, levels can spike above 400 mg/L — a several-hundred-fold increase. CRP also has a practical advantage for testing: it doesn’t fluctuate throughout the day, and fasting is not required before a blood draw.

The Many Uses of CRP in Clinical Medicine

The oldest application of CRP testing is detecting and monitoring bacterial infection. Very high values — generally above 100 mg/L — strongly suggest bacterial rather than viral infection, since viruses tend to provoke a much more modest CRP rise. In sepsis (the life-threatening systemic response to infection), CRP is one of several markers used to assess severity and track the response to treatment.

CRP is also routinely used to monitor autoimmune diseases. In rheumatoid arthritis, CRP is included in standard disease activity scoring tools. Tracking CRP over time helps clinicians judge whether treatments like disease-modifying drugs are working. One notable exception: in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), CRP often stays surprisingly low even during active flares.

Perhaps the most debated expansion of CRP testing in recent decades is its role in cardiovascular risk assessment. That story begins with the recognition that atherosclerosis, the plaque buildup inside artery walls, is fundamentally an inflammatory process, not just a plumbing problem caused by too much cholesterol. As that insight took hold in the 1990s, researchers began asking whether CRP could predict heart attack risk the way cholesterol does.

The answer was yes, but only with a more sensitive test. Standard CRP assays can’t detect levels below about 10 mg/L, which is fine for infections but misses the chronic low-level inflammation relevant to cardiovascular risk. A newer high-sensitivity CRP test (hs-CRP) can measure levels as low as 0.01 mg/L. Using hs-CRP, researchers found that even modest CRP elevations, within the range once considered entirely normal, carry meaningful cardiovascular risk.

The American Heart Association and the CDC use these hs-CRP thresholds for cardiovascular risk: below 1 mg/L is low risk; 1 to 3 mg/L is intermediate risk; above 3 mg/L is higher risk. A large UK Biobank analysis of nearly 450,000 people found that individuals with hs-CRP above 3 mg/L had a 34% higher risk of major cardiovascular events and a 61% higher risk of cardiovascular death compared to those below 1 mg/L.

The landmark JUPITER trial demonstrated that patients with low LDL cholesterol, but elevated hs-CRP (above 2 mg/L) still benefited substantially from statin therapy — in terms of reduced heart attacks and strokes. This reframed how cardiologists think about inflammation as a cardiovascular target independent of cholesterol levels.

Beyond infection, autoimmune disorders, and heart disease, elevated CRP has been linked to type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, chronic kidney disease, COPD, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, all conditions where chronic low-grade inflammation is increasingly recognized as a contributing factor rather than just a side effect.

Measuring CRP: The Standard Test vs. the High-Sensitivity Test

CRP testing is straightforward, just a standard blood draw, no fasting required. Modern automated lab analyzers make it fast and inexpensive, which explains why it shows up so often in clinical workups.

The standard CRP test is the workhorse for detecting acute infection and monitoring inflammatory flares in hospitalized patients. The hs-CRP test uses more sensitive techniques and is the test used for cardiovascular risk assessment.

Because hs-CRP can fluctuate modestly from day to day, cardiovascular guidelines recommend averaging two measurements taken about two weeks apart. Acute illness, recent injury, or even a hard workout can temporarily elevate hs-CRP and produce a misleading result.

Several factors can push CRP higher independently of the disease in question: obesity, smoking, high blood pressure, metabolic syndrome, low HDL cholesterol, and chronic low-grade infections such as gum disease. Age also gradually raises baseline CRP. On the other side, moderate physical activity, weight loss, and statins are all associated with lower CRP — which partly explains the broader cardiovascular benefits of statin therapy beyond cholesterol reduction.

What CRP Can’t Tell You

For all its usefulness, CRP is a nonspecific marker. A reading of 50 mg/L is consistent with a kidney infection, an autoimmune flare, a recent heart attack, or an abdominal cancer. CRP tells you that inflammation or tissue damage is happening somewhere; it doesn’t tell you where or why. Clinical context including symptoms, medical history, and other lab results, is essential for interpretation.

There’s also a genuine unresolved debate about whether CRP elevation actually causes cardiovascular disease or is simply a marker of underlying inflammatory risk. Animal studies in CRP-deficient or CRP-enhanced models have produced inconsistent results. Mendelian randomization studies in humans, a statistical technique that uses genetic variants to approximate a randomized experiment, have generally not supported CRP as a causal driver of heart disease, suggesting it may be more of a reaction than a root cause.

Finally, hs-CRP testing, despite strong evidence, remains underused in primary care, particularly in primary prevention. The 2024 European Society of Cardiology guidelines for chronic coronary syndromes did recommend assessing hs-CRP in patients with suspected coronary artery disease, which reflects accumulating evidence for its utility, but broader implementation lags behind the science. I have to admit, when I was still in active practice, I was unaware of the role of hs-CRP in primary prevention. At the time, it was generally thought to be of use in secondary prevention—actions taken after an initial event. Be sure and ask your doctor about it.

CRP is, in the end, a remarkably versatile tool — a protein that has been doing immune surveillance since long before medicine had a name for it, and one that continues to find new clinical relevance with each decade of research.

Medical Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is intended for general educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. It should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Always seek the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here.

If you are experiencing a medical emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number immediately.

The author of this article is a licensed physician, but the views expressed here are solely those of the author and do not represent the official position of any hospital, health system, or medical organization with which the author may be affiliated.

Image generated by the author using ChatGPT

Sources

The following peer-reviewed and clinical references support this article:

Zhou et al. (2024). C-reactive protein: structure, function, regulation, and role in clinical diseases. Frontiers in Immunology. — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11211361/

Agrawal & Wu (2024). Editorial: Biology of C-reactive protein. Frontiers in Immunology. — https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1445001/full

Volanakis (2001). Human C-reactive protein: expression, structure, and function. Molecular Immunology. PubMed. — https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11532280/

Thompson et al. (2004). C-reactive protein. Journal of Biological Chemistry. — https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(19)32228-8/fulltext

Salazar et al. (2014). C-Reactive Protein: An In-Depth Look into Structure, Function, and Regulation. International Scholarly Research Notices. PMC. — https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4897210/

StatPearls: C-Reactive Protein: Clinical Relevance and Interpretation. PubMed. — https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28722873/

Medscape: High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein: Reference Range, Interpretation. — https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2094831-overview

Ridker PM (2003). High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: clinical importance. PubMed. — https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15258556/

Kraaijenhof et al. (2025). LDL cholesterol, CRP, and lipoprotein(a) universal screening. European Heart Journal. ACC summary. — https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2025/12/01/01/prioritizing-health-hscrp

Johns Hopkins Medicine: Assessing Cardiovascular Risk with C-Reactive Protein. — https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/assessing-cardiovascular-risk-with-c-reactive-protein

Labcorp: C-Reactive Protein (CRP), High Sensitivity (Cardiac Risk Assessment). — https://www.labcorp.com/tests/120766/c-reactive-protein-crp-high-sensitivity-cardiac-risk-assessment

Larsen et al. (2024). C-reactive protein and cardiovascular risk in the general population. European Heart Journal. — https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf937/8377304

Shetty & Kawaguchi (2024). Role of CRP in disease progression, diagnosis and management. PMC. — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11569793/

McDonnell et al. (2024). C-reactive protein complement-ary structures in RA. Elsevier/Immunology Letters. — https://www.binasss.sa.cr/ago24/21.pdf

CRP kinetics as predictor in immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. BJC Reports / Nature. — https://www.nature.com/articles/s44276-023-00005-x

Borges et al. (2024). Battle of the Biomarkers of Systemic Inflammation (CRP vs cfDNA). PMC. — https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12024891/

Assay Genie: C-reactive protein — structure and function overview. — https://www.assaygenie.com/blog/c-reactive-protein

WebMD: C-Reactive Protein Test: High vs. Low Levels. — https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/c-reactive-protein-test

Mayo Clinic: C-reactive protein test. —https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/c-reactive-protein-test/about/pac-20385228

America’s First Constitution

By

On June 26, 2026

In History, Politics

The Articles of Confederation: Birth, Failures, and Legacy

The United States Constitution, ratified in 1788 and implemented in 1789, is often treated as the nation’s true founding framework. Yet before it, there existed another governing document, one far less celebrated but no less essential to understanding the early republic. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union served as America’s first constitution from their adoption by the Continental Congress in 1777 to their replacement just over a decade later. Imperfect, fragile, and ultimately unsustainable, the Articles nevertheless provided the institutional bridge between revolution and nationhood.

To understand why the Articles were structured as they were—and why they ultimately failed we need to step back into the mindset of the revolutionary generation. The men who drafted them were not political theorists operating in calm conditions; they were wartime leaders grappling with uncertainty, scarcity, and deep suspicion of centralized authority. They had just rebelled against British tyranny, and they were determined not to allow such power on American soil. The result was a system deliberately designed to restrain national authority, even at the cost of efficiency. The Articles represented both a solution to immediate wartime needs and a reflection of deeply held ideological fears. Their story is not merely one of failure, but of experimentation, adaptation, and political learning.

Revolutionary Context and the Need for Union

The intellectual origins of the Articles stretch back well before independence. Colonial leaders had long recognized the potential benefits of intercolonial cooperation. Benjamin Franklin’s Albany Plan of Union in 1754 proposed a centralized colonial government capable of coordinating defense and managing relations with Native nations. Though ultimately rejected by the colonies, the plan foreshadowed later efforts at union by raising the fundamental question of how semi-autonomous political entities might cooperate without surrendering their independence.

That question became urgent during the American Revolution. When the Second Continental Congress convened in 1775, it functioned as a provisional government, but its authority was ambiguous and largely dependent on voluntary compliance. As the war intensified, it became increasingly clear that thirteen separate colonies could not effectively wage a coordinated struggle against the British Empire without some formal political structure. Congress needed legitimacy—not merely as a gathering of delegates, but as a governing body with recognized authority over military, diplomatic, and financial matters.

On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a committee to draft a plan of confederation, even as another committee worked on the Declaration of Independence. The parallel timing was no coincidence. Independence required not only separation from Britain but also the creation of a new political order. The Articles were intended to provide that order, a framework through which the states could act collectively while preserving their individual sovereignty.

Drafting Under Pressure

The drafting process unfolded under extraordinary circumstances. John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, a respected lawyer and political thinker, chaired the committee and produced the initial draft in July 1776. Debate over its provisions, however, proved slow and contentious. Congress was simultaneously managing a war, and immediate military concerns often took precedence over constitutional deliberation.

Disagreements over representation, taxation, and western land claims delayed progress for more than a year. It was not until November 15, 1777, while Congress was in exile in York, Pennsylvania, following the British capture of Philadelphia, that the Articles were finally approved. Even then, the document was widely understood as a compromise rather than an ideal solution.

Ratification presented an additional challenge. Because the Articles required unanimous consent, any single state could delay their implementation. The principal obstacle came from disputes over western lands. States with expansive territorial claims, such as Virginia, were reluctant to relinquish them, while smaller states like Maryland insisted that such lands should be held in common for the benefit of the union. Only after Virginia agreed to cede its claims did Maryland ratify the Articles on March 1, 1781, bringing them into full effect.

Structure and Principles

The Articles of Confederation established a national government that was intentionally limited in scope. At its core was a unicameral Congress in which each state, regardless of size or population, held a single vote. This arrangement reflected the primacy of state sovereignty: the union was conceived not as a single nation but as a “league of friendship” among independent states.

The national government possessed certain powers, including the authority to declare war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and manage relations with Native nations. However, these powers were constrained by critical limitations. Congress could not levy taxes directly, regulate interstate commerce, or enforce its decisions upon the states. Instead, it relied on requisitions, little more than requests for funds, which states frequently ignored or, at best, only partially fulfilled.

Equally significant was the absence of both an executive branch and a national judiciary. There was no president to enforce laws or coordinate policy, and no federal court system to interpret them. Administrative functions were handled by committees and departments accountable to Congress, resulting in a diffuse and often ineffective system of governance.

Amending the Articles required unanimous consent, a provision that made meaningful reform nearly impossible. While intended to protect state sovereignty, this requirement ensured that structural weaknesses could not be easily corrected.

Achievements Under the Articles

Despite their limitations, the Articles of Confederation were not without success. Most importantly, they provided a legal framework that enabled the colonies to prosecute and ultimately win the Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress, operating under the authority of the Articles, secured crucial alliances, most notably with France, and negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which formally ended the conflict and recognized American independence.

The Confederation government also achieved lasting success in western land policy. The Land Ordinances of 1784 and 1785, followed by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, established a systematic process for surveying, selling, and governing western territories. These measures ensured that new states would enter the union on equal footing with the original thirteen and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory. This framework not only facilitated orderly expansion but also set important precedents for federal authority over territories.

The Articles also fostered a sense of national identity, however fragile. They affirmed the name “United States of America” and maintained a formal union during a period when regional differences might easily have led to fragmentation.

Structural Weaknesses and Growing Crisis

The weaknesses of the Articles, however, became increasingly apparent in the postwar period. Financial instability was among the most pressing issues. Without the power to tax, Congress struggled to pay war debts, fund the military, or support basic governmental functions. Inflation, currency devaluation, and economic dislocation further compounded these difficulties.

Interstate economic conflict added another layer of instability. In the absence of federal regulation, states imposed tariffs and trade barriers against one another, undermining economic cohesion. Competing currencies and inconsistent policies created an environment of uncertainty that hindered recovery and growth.

The lack of enforcement mechanisms proved equally problematic. Congress could pass laws and enter into treaties, but it had no means of compelling compliance. States frequently ignored national directives, and often violated provisions of the Treaty of Paris, particularly regarding the treatment of loyalists and British creditors. This inability to enforce national policy damaged American credibility abroad.

These structural deficiencies reflected the underlying philosophy of the Articles: a deep distrust of centralized power. By the mid-1780s, it was becoming clear that excessive decentralization carried its own dangers.

Shays’ Rebellion and the Turning Point

The crisis reached a breaking point with Shays’ Rebellion in 1786–1787. Economic hardship, particularly among farmers in western Massachusetts, led to widespread unrest. Burdened by debt and high taxes, many farmers faced foreclosure and imprisonment. When legal and political remedies failed, they turned to direct action, closing courts and attempting to seize the federal arsenal at Springfield.

The Confederation government was effectively powerless to respond. Lacking both funds and military authority, Congress could offer no assistance. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by a state militia supported by private funds, underscoring the inability of the national government to maintain order.

The implications were profound. For many leaders, including George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, Shays’ Rebellion demonstrated that the existing system was untenable. A government that could not enforce laws or ensure domestic tranquility was doomed to collapse.

Toward a New Constitution

Efforts to address these problems began modestly. The Annapolis Convention of 1786, initially convened to discuss trade issues, concluded that broader reforms were necessary and called for a general convention in Philadelphia. In February 1787, Congress endorsed this proposal, though officially only to revise the Articles.

The Philadelphia Convention, however, quickly moved beyond revision. Delegates recognized that the Articles’ fundamental structure, particularly the reliance on voluntary state compliance, could not support an effective national government. The solution was to become an entirely new framework: the United States Constitution.

Ratified in 1788 and implemented the following year, the Constitution addressed the central weaknesses of the Articles by establishing a stronger federal government with the power to tax, regulate commerce, enforce laws, and operate through separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Legacy and Historical Significance

It is tempting to view the Articles of Confederation solely as a failure, a flawed experiment quickly discarded in favor of a superior system. Such a perspective, however, overlooks their broader significance. The Articles represented a necessary first step in the creation of the American republic. They reflected the political realities and ideological commitments of their time, particularly the pervasive fear of centralized authority.

Their shortcomings provided invaluable lessons. The Constitution did not emerge in a vacuum; it was shaped directly by the experience of governing under the Articles. The framers understood, from hard experience, the dangers of both excessive centralization and excessive decentralization. The resulting system sought to balance these concerns, creating a government strong enough to function yet constrained enough to preserve liberty.

The Articles also demonstrated that political systems can evolve. They were not the final word on American governance, but an early chapter in an ongoing process of constitutional development. Their legacy lies not only in what they achieved, but in what they revealed about the challenges of building a nation.

In this sense, the Articles of Confederation were not a failure so much as an experiment, one conducted under extraordinary pressure, with limited precedent, and with stakes that could scarcely have been higher. They held the union together long enough for a more durable system to emerge. That alone secures their place in the story of American constitutional history.

Image generated by author using ChatGPT.

Sources

National Archives: Articles of Confederation (1777) — Primary Document

Library of Congress: Articles of Confederation — John Dickinson (1778)

HISTORY.com: Articles of Confederation — Weaknesses, Definition, Date

George Washington’s Mount Vernon: The Articles of Confederation

U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian: Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781

Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia: Articles of Confederation

Encyclopaedia Britannica: John Dickinson

Wikipedia: John Dickinson

Historical Society of Pennsylvania (via Panorama/SHEAR): The John Dickinson Draft of the Articles of Confederation

National Archives: John Dickinson Writings

University of Delaware Library: John Dickinson — Penman of the Revolution

EBSCO Research Starters: Analysis — Articles of Confederation

Wikipedia: Articles of Confederation

Wikipedia: Shays’s Rebellion

National Constitution Center: Summary of Shays’ Rebellion

American History Central: Articles of Confederation

SLCC Press / Attenuated Democracy: Chapter 12 — Articles of Confederation, Shays’ Rebellion and the Road to the Constitution

GovFacts.org: Why the Articles of Confederation Failed

Not All Fat Is the Enemy

By

On June 23, 2026

In Medicine

A Plain-Language Guide to Dietary Fats, What They Do, and How to Make Better Choices

The Fat Myth That Stuck Around Too Long

For decades, the American food industry sold us a story: fat is bad, and less of it is better. By the 1980s and 1990s, supermarket shelves sagged under the weight of fat-free cookies, low-fat chips, and reduced-fat everything. The problem, of course, was that when food companies stripped out the fat, they often replaced it with sugar and refined carbohydrates to maintain flavor — and Americans got sicker anyway. Heart disease rates climbed. Obesity rates climbed. And gradually, the nutrition science world came to a more nuanced conclusion: what kind of fat you eat matters far more than how much.

Today, the scientific consensus is clear enough that even cautious institutions like the American Heart Association and Harvard’s School of Public Health distinguish sharply between fats that harm us and fats that we actually need to survive. This article walks through the main types of dietary fat — where they come from, what they do in the body, and how the average American can make smarter choices without turning every meal into a chemistry lesson.

The Chemistry, Simply Put

You don’t need a biochemistry degree to understand dietary fat, but a little structural context goes a long way. All fats are built from molecules called fatty acids — long chains of carbon atoms linked together, with hydrogen atoms attached. The difference between fat types comes down to how those hydrogen atoms are arranged.

Saturated Fats

Saturated fats are “saturated” with hydrogen atoms — meaning every carbon in the chain is bonded to as many hydrogens as it can possibly hold. This gives them a rigid, tightly packed structure. The practical consequence? Most saturated fats are solid at room temperature — think of the white fat marbled through a raw steak, or a stick of butter sitting on a counter.

Unsaturated Fats

Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the chain — which means they are missing some hydrogen atoms. That double bond creates a “kink” in the molecular chain, preventing the fat molecules from packing tightly together. The result is that Unsaturated Fats

Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the chain — which means they are missing some hydrogen atoms. That double bond creates a “kink” in the molecular chain, preventing the fat molecules from packing tightly together. The result is that unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, olive oil being the most familiar example.

Within unsaturated fats, there are two important subtypes based on how many double bonds exist. Monounsaturated fats (MUFAs) have exactly one double bond. Polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) have two or more. Both behave very differently in the body than saturated fats and generally, much more favorably.

Trans Fats: The Artificial Villain

Trans fats deserve their own brief mention because they are the one type of fat that virtually every credible nutrition authority agrees should be avoided as completely as possible. Most trans fats are artificially created through a process called partial hydrogenation — taking liquid vegetable oil and pumping hydrogen through it under high pressure to make it solid and shelf-stable. The result is partially hydrogenated oil, which was found in margarine, shortening, packaged cookies, and countless processed snacks for most of the twentieth century.

The FDA banned the addition of partially hydrogenated oils to U.S. food products based on overwhelming evidence that industrial trans fats raise “bad” LDL cholesterol, lower “good” HDL cholesterol, and significantly increase cardiovascular risk. Small amounts of naturally occurring trans fats are found in animal products like beef and dairy, and these appear to be metabolically distinct from industrial trans fats — less concerning but still something most experts recommend limiting.

Saturated Fats in Detail

Where They Come From

Saturated fats are found predominantly in animal products and a handful of tropical plant oils. The major food sources include fatty cuts of beef and pork, poultry skin, full-fat dairy products (butter, whole milk, cream, cheese), lard, and beef tallow. On the plant side, coconut oil and palm oil are notably high in saturated fat — which surprises many people who assume all plant-based oils are heart-healthy. Coconut oil in particular has been heavily marketed as a “superfood” in recent years, a claim that runs in conflict with the science.

What They Do in the Body

The relationship between saturated fat and cardiovascular health has been one of the most debated topics in nutrition science for the past two decades. The original view, dominant for most of the 20th century, was straightforward: eating saturated fat raises LDL (“bad”) cholesterol, and higher LDL raises the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. That basic chain of reasoning is still supported by substantial evidence.

However, the picture has grown more complicated. Research over the past decade has raised legitimate questions about whether all saturated fats are equally problematic, and whether saturated fat in isolation — rather than as part of an overall dietary pattern — is the right thing to be measuring. A study cited by the National Institutes of Health found that replacing saturated fats with refined carbohydrates (which is what happened when Americans went fat-free in the 1980s) did not reduce cardiovascular risk. The key variable isn’t just removing saturated fat — it was what you replace it with.

The evidence clearly shows that replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats reduces cardiovascular risk. Replacing them with sugar and white flour does not. That distinction has become the cornerstone of modern dietary fat guidance.

How Much Is Too Much?

Current guidance varies slightly between major health organizations, but the general range is consistent. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends keeping saturated fat below 10% of total daily calories. The American Heart Association is more conservative, recommending below 6% — which for a 2,000-calorie diet works out to about 13 grams per day, roughly the amount in a single tablespoon of butter combined with a small handful of cheese.

Monounsaturated Fats (MUFAs)

Where They Come From

Monounsaturated fats are the dominant fat in olive oil, avocados, peanut oil, canola oil, and most nuts — including almonds, cashews, and hazelnuts. They are the nutritional backbone of the Mediterranean diet, which has been studied more extensively for cardiovascular benefit than perhaps any other dietary pattern in history.

Health Benefits

The evidence in favor of MUFAs is robust . Monounsaturated fats lower LDL cholesterol while maintaining levels of HDL (“good”) cholesterol when they replace saturated fat in the diet. A clinical trial called the OmniHeart study found that shifting to a diet rich in monounsaturated fats — compared to a carbohydrate-rich diet — lowered blood pressure, improved cholesterol profiles, and reduced estimated cardiovascular risk. Beyond the heart, research suggests that swapping saturated fats for MUFAs may also support modest weight and body fat reduction even without changing total calorie intake.

MUFAs are also notably stable at cooking temperatures, which makes olive oil a practical and healthy choice for most everyday cooking — sautéing vegetables, making salad dressings, or roasting proteins.

Polyunsaturated Fats (PUFAs) — The Essential Fats

Polyunsaturated fats are, in many ways, the most scientifically interesting category because they include the only two dietary fats that the human body genuinely cannot produce on its own and must obtain from food. These are called essential fatty acids, and they fall into two families: omega-3s and omega-6s.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

What They Are and Where They Come From

Omega-3s are the fats most Americans have heard of in the context of fish oil supplements. The three main types are ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). ALA is found primarily in plant sources — walnuts, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and canola or soybean oil. EPA and DHA are found in fatty fish — salmon, sardines, mackerel, herring, and trout — as well as in algae-based oils, which is where fish get their omega-3s in the first place.

The body can convert ALA into EPA and DHA, but only very inefficiently. For practical purposes, regular fish consumption is the most reliable way to maintain adequate EPA and DHA levels. The American Heart Association recommends at least two servings of fatty fish per week for this reason.

Health Benefits

Omega-3 fatty acids are structural components of cell membranes throughout the body and serve as precursors to signaling molecules that regulate inflammation. Their most well-established benefits are cardiovascular: they reduce triglyceride levels, stabilize heart rhythms, and appear to lower the risk of sudden cardiac death. Beyond the heart, research suggests they play important roles in brain development (particularly during fetal development and infancy), may reduce the risk of certain neurodegenerative conditions, and have documented anti-inflammatory effects relevant to conditions like rheumatoid arthritis.

A recent review published in the journal Foods found that omega-3s may help delay the onset of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, reduce depression, and contribute to cancer prevention, though the authors note that more research is needed to fully understand these relationships.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

What They Are and Where They Come From

Omega-6 fatty acids are found in most vegetable oils — corn oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil — as well as in nuts, seeds, and poultry. Linoleic acid (LA) is the primary dietary omega-6 and is the only one classified as truly essential.

The Omega-6/Omega-3 Imbalance

Here is where things get complicated in a uniquely American way. The typical Western diet contains far more omega-6 fats than necessary and not nearly enough omega-3 fats. The ideal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the diet is thought to be somewhere between 4:1 and 1:1. The actual ratio in the average American diet is estimated at anywhere from 15:1 to 20:1 — a dramatic imbalance driven by the ubiquity of processed foods and vegetable oils in the food supply.

This matters because omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids compete for the same metabolic pathways in the body. While omega-6s in appropriate amounts are essential and beneficial, a chronically elevated omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is associated with increased inflammation and higher risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and some neurodegenerative conditions. The goal is not to eliminate omega-6s but to bring the ratio back into better balance — primarily by increasing omega-3 intake.

What a Healthy Fat Profile Actually Looks Like

Putting all of this together, what does a well-balanced dietary fat intake actually look like? The evidence points toward a few consistent principles.

In a typical healthy diet, 20–35% of total daily calories can come from fat. Within that total, the composition matters enormously. Unsaturated fats — both mono and polyunsaturated — should make up the bulk. Saturated fats should be limited to under 10% of daily calories by federal guidelines, or under 6% if you are following the American Heart Association’s more aggressive recommendation. Trans fats, the industrial kind, should be avoided as close to completely as possible.

The two truly essential fats — linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) — must come from the diet because the human body cannot synthesize them. Everything else the body can manufacture from raw materials, given enough of the right building blocks.

For omega-3s specifically, the WHO and EFSA recommend at least 250 mg per day of EPA + DHA. And recommend 1.6 grams of ALA per day for adult males and 1.1 grams for adult females. Most Americans fall well short of these targets.

Practical Ways to Shift Your Fat Intake

Dietary change works best when it’s specific and sustainable — not when it involves a complete pantry overhaul overnight. Here are evidence-based adjustments that can meaningfully improve the fat profile of a typical American diet.

Replace Saturated Fats With Unsaturated Fats at the Cooking Stage

Instead of frying or sautéing in butter, lard, or palm oil, switch to olive oil, avocado oil, or canola oil. This single substitution is one of the most consistently supported interventions in dietary fat research. For those who prefer a buttery flavor, using a small amount of butter blended with olive oil is a practical middle ground.

Eat Fatty Fish Twice a Week

Salmon, sardines, mackerel, herring, and trout are all excellent sources of EPA and DHA omega-3s. The American Heart Association’s recommendation of two fish servings per week is a well-established and achievable benchmark. Canned fish — particularly canned salmon and sardines — is inexpensive and just as nutritious as fresh. Tuna is an option but requires an larger serving.

Add Nuts, Seeds, and Avocados

A handful of walnuts (a particularly good plant source of ALA omega-3s), a tablespoon of ground flaxseed in yogurt or oatmeal, or half an avocado on toast are all straightforward ways to shift your fat intake in a healthier direction. Nuts and avocados are also rich in monounsaturated fats that support cholesterol health.

Choose Leaner Cuts of Meat

Selecting leaner cuts of beef and pork — those labeled “loin” or “round,” or ground meat that is 90–95% lean — can substantially reduce saturated fat intake without eliminating meat from the diet. Removing skin from poultry before cooking similarly reduces saturated fat in a simple and inexpensive way.

Read Labels for Trans Fats — Carefully

Food packaging can legally claim “0 grams of trans fat” if a product contains less than 0.5 grams per serving. If you eat multiple servings of such products, those fractions add up. The safeguard is to check the ingredient list for “partially hydrogenated oil” — if it appears anywhere, the product contains industrial trans fats., regardless of what the front label says.

Limit — Don’t Necessarily Eliminate — Saturated Fat

A realistic goal is not to strip all saturated fat from your diet but to keep it within the recommended range. Full-fat dairy in moderate amounts, an occasional burger, or butter used sparingly are unlikely to cause harm in the context of an otherwise balanced eating pattern. What matters most, as nutrition experts now emphasize, is the overall dietary pattern — not any single food or nutrient in isolation.

The Bottom Line

Fat is not a dietary villain. It is an essential macronutrient that the body depends on for energy, vitamin absorption, hormone production, brain function, and cell membrane integrity. The question has never really been whether to eat fat — it has always been which fats to prioritize.

The evidence points consistently in one direction: lean toward unsaturated fats (olive oil, nuts, avocados, fatty fish), keep saturated fat in check, avoid industrial trans fats entirely, and pay particular attention to getting enough omega-3 fatty acids, which most Americans chronically under-consume. These adjustments don’t require extreme dietary measures. They require informed choices made consistently — and that, ultimately, is the most sustainable kind of nutrition science.

Illustration generated by author using ChatGPT

Note: The core findings in this article — that unsaturated fats are preferable to saturated fats, that omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential, and that industrial trans fats are harmful — are supported by decades of research and endorsed by major health authorities including the American Heart Association, the NIH, and the 2025 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Some nuance remains in the saturated fat debate (particularly regarding specific saturated fatty acid subtypes and their varying cardiovascular effects), and the research on omega-3s and neurological disease is still evolving.

Medical Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is intended for general educational and informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. It should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Always seek the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here.

If you are experiencing a medical emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number immediately.

The author of this article is a licensed physician, but the views expressed here are solely those of the author and do not represent the official position of any hospital, health system, or medical organization with which the author may be affiliated.

Sources

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee — Food Sources of Saturated Fat (2025)

Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health — Types of Fat

American Heart Association — Saturated Fats

American Heart Association — Fats in Foods

Mayo Clinic — Dietary Fat: Know Which to Choose

Mayo Clinic — Trans Fat Is Double Trouble for Heart Health

Healthline — Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fat: Know the Facts

Healthline — Omega-3–6–9 Fatty Acids: A Complete Overview

NCBI/PMC — Monounsaturated Fat vs Saturated Fat: Effects on Cardio-Metabolic Health and Obesity

NCBI/PMC — The Role of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation in Human Health (Foods, 2025)

Linus Pauling Institute — Essential Fatty Acids

NIH — Omega-3 Fatty Acids Health Professional Fact Sheet

OCL Journal — The Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio: Health Implications

VA Nutrition Services — Common Fats and Oils (2024)

UMass Medical — Tips on Reducing Saturated Fat

MedlinePlus — Facts About Trans Fats

Brown University Health — The Truth About Trans Fats

University of Nebraska Extension — Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids

Who Gets to Decide? The Modern Battle Over Books in America

By

On June 19, 2026

In Commentary, Politics

If you thought book banning was a relic of the past, think again. The United States is experiencing the most intense wave of book challenges in modern memory. Over the last four years, thousands of books have been removed from school and library shelves, sparking a national debate about parental rights, free expression, education, and the role of government.

At the center of the controversy is a simple but powerful question: Who gets to decide what children and communities are allowed to read?

We were casually looking for books to read with our grandson this year. He loves baseball so we were looking for books on that topic. Somehow we got on a site about banned books and, yes, there was a baseball story on the list, curiosity got us. The book is Baseball Saved Us by Ken Mochizuki and Dom Lee.  This is the story about a baseball field that was created in a Japanese internment camp in during World War II and the prejudice they faced when they returned home after the war. The story, written on a fourth grade reading level, is about how the boys played baseball during their internment and how it helped them to survive. This is a banned book?? Why??

This made us wonder what it means to be on a “banned book list”.  Just because it’s on the list does every library or school have to ban it? The answer is no, thank goodness. Members of library boards and school boards and parents play an important role and they have a lot to consider. Here are some interesting details about book banning in its current evolution.

The Scale of the Movement

The numbers are striking. According to PEN America, nearly 23,000 book bans have occurred in public schools since 2021. During the 2023–24 school year alone, more than 10,000 individual book bans were recorded. The following year saw nearly 7,000 additional bans affecting more than 3,700 unique titles.

Florida has led the nation in book removals for three consecutive years, followed by Texas and Tennessee. The American Library Association (ALA) documented more than 4,200 unique titles challenged in 2025, making it one of the highest years ever recorded.

Not every challenge results in a permanent ban. Some books are removed temporarily while review committees evaluate complaints. Others are eventually restored to shelves. Yet the sheer volume of challenges has significantly reduced access to books for many students and library users.

Supporters argue these actions protect children from inappropriate material. Critics view them as a growing campaign of censorship.

Which Books Are Being Targeted?

The books most frequently challenged share common themes.

According to the ALA, many complaints focus on books that discuss race, racism, gender identity, sexuality, or LGBTQ+ experiences. Others involve sexual content, abuse, violence, or mental health issues.

Among the most challenged books in recent years are Gender Queer by Maia Kobabe, The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky, Looking for Alaska by John Green, and several novels by Sarah J. Maas.

Classic works have also been caught in the controversy. Schools and districts in several states have removed or restricted books such as The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison, The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini, and even George Orwell’s 1984.

Critics of the banning movement note that many of these books have been available in schools for years or even decades. They argue that the current challenges are less about newly discovered concerns and more about broader cultural and political disagreements.

Who Is Driving the Challenges?

One of the most significant developments is the changing source of complaints.

The ALA reports that in 2025, 92 percent of book challenges originated from organized groups, government officials, or political activists rather than individual parents. Twenty years earlier, most challenges came from local citizens raising concerns about specific books.

This shift suggests that book challenges have become part of a larger political movement rather than isolated local disputes.

Among the most visible organizations is Moms for Liberty, founded in Florida in 2021. Originally focused on opposition to COVID-19 school policies, the group later turned its attention to curriculum issues and library books. It now claims chapters in dozens of states and has become a major force in school board elections and library controversies.

Other organizations, including No Left Turn in Education, Citizens Defending Freedom, and various state-based groups, have pursued similar goals. These organizations often share lists of books to challenge, provide guidance to local activists, and coordinate campaigns across multiple communities.

Supporters describe these efforts as parental advocacy. Critics see them as organized attempts to impose political and ideological restrictions on public education.

The Political Connection

The book-banning movement has become closely associated with broader conservative politics, particularly the MAGA movement.

Moms for Liberty has maintained ties with the Heritage Foundation, the conservative think tank that developed Project 2025. The Heritage Foundation has sponsored Moms for Liberty events and honored the organization with awards recognizing its activism.

The relationship became even more visible when Moms for Liberty co-founder Tiffany Justice left the organization to lead the Heritage Foundation’s parental-rights initiative.

Former President Donald Trump has also embraced many of the same themes. He appeared at a Moms for Liberty national summit and has frequently criticized educational institutions, libraries, and schools that he believes promote what he describes as inappropriate or politically biased material.

Supporters view these alliances as part of a broader effort to restore parental control over education. Opponents argue they demonstrate that book challenges have become deeply intertwined with national political agendas.

Project 2025 and Libraries

Much attention has focused on Project 2025, the policy blueprint produced by the Heritage Foundation.

The document calls for stronger action against what its authors characterize as inappropriate materials in schools and libraries. Critics have highlighted language suggesting that educators and librarians who provide access to certain materials could face legal consequences.

Supporters argue that such proposals are intended to protect children from explicit content. Opponents contend that they would create a chilling effect, discouraging educators and librarians from offering books dealing with controversial subjects.

The debate reflects a broader disagreement about where the line should be drawn between protecting minors and preserving intellectual freedom.

How Libraries and Schools Are Responding

Responses vary widely across the country.

Some school districts remove challenged books immediately. Others establish review committees consisting of teachers, librarians, administrators, parents, and sometimes students. These committees examine books in their entirety before making recommendations.

Public libraries have generally been more resistant to removing books. Most rely on formal collection-development policies and challenge procedures designed to balance community concerns with principles of intellectual freedom.

Many libraries have retained challenged books after review, arguing that public libraries serve diverse populations and that parents should make reading decisions for their own children without limiting access for others.

At the same time, librarians in some states report increasing pressure from elected officials and advocacy groups. Concerns about funding, employment consequences, and potential legal liability have led some libraries to avoid purchasing controversial titles altogether.

Critics refer to this phenomenon as “preemptive censorship” because books disappear before formal challenges even occur.

State Governments Enter the Fight

Several states have moved beyond local challenges and enacted statewide policies.

Utah, South Carolina, and Tennessee have adopted mechanisms that allow certain books to be removed from schools statewide. Florida has expanded parental authority over educational materials and library collections.

Supporters argue these measures provide consistency and protect children across entire states. Critics counter that statewide restrictions eliminate local decision-making and reduce access to books for students whose families may have no objections to the material.

The controversy has occasionally reached dramatic levels. In Randolph County, North Carolina, county commissioners dissolved the public library board after it refused to remove a children’s book featuring a transgender character.

Such disputes illustrate how library policy has become a flashpoint in cultural conflicts.

The Courts Push Back

Many of these policies have faced legal challenges and the results have been mixed.

In Iowa, a federal judge blocked portions of a state law that prohibited books containing descriptions of sexual activity, ruling that the restrictions likely violated First Amendment protections.  In the Rutherford County, Tennessee case, the first legal challenge to that state’s expanded book statute — a federal judge declined to issue a preliminary injunction, writing that a school board “has not prohibited students from reading the books or acquiring them elsewhere; instead, it has merely opted not to carry them on school library bookshelves.”

Courts have often struggled to balance competing interests. School boards possess significant authority over educational materials, while students have constitutional protections related to access to information.

The legal outcomes remain uncertain, but the judiciary has become one of the primary battlegrounds in the debate.

Voters Respond

School board elections have become another arena for the conflict.

In several Texas districts during 2025, voters removed incumbents who had championed aggressive book-removal policies. Similar results appeared in other states, suggesting that many voters are uncomfortable with the scope of current restrictions.  At the same time, candidates supporting stricter controls continue to win elections in other communities.

The mixed results indicate that Americans remain deeply divided on the issue.

A Growing Countermovement

Opposition to book bans has generated its own political response.  Organizations such as PEN America, the Authors Guild, the ALA, and numerous local advocacy groups have organized campaigns defending intellectual freedom. Several states have considered legislation designed to make book removals more difficult.

Minnesota, for example, has considered legislation that would prohibit the removal of books based primarily on ideological objections and would place greater authority in the hands of professional librarians.

Supporters argue such laws protect access to information. Critics contend they diminish parental influence and local control.

The Bottom Line

The modern book-banning movement is unlike anything seen in recent decades. Its scale is unprecedented, its organization is sophisticated, and its connections to broader political movements are well documented.

Supporters view the effort as a legitimate exercise of parental rights and community standards. Critics see it as an organized campaign to restrict access to ideas, experiences, and viewpoints that some groups find objectionable.

The debate is unlikely to disappear anytime soon. It touches fundamental questions about education, democracy, free speech, and the role of public institutions.

Who should decide what belongs on library shelves? Parents? Librarians? Teachers? School boards? Legislatures? Courts?

Americans have not reached a consensus on those questions. Until they do, the battle over books is likely to remain one of the most visible fronts in the nation’s ongoing culture wars.

Illustration generated by author using Chat GPT

Sources

PEN America — Book Bans Overview

PEN America — The Normalization of Book Banning (2024–25 Report)

American Library Association — Censorship by the Numbers

ALA — Most Challenged Books

NPR — ALA Releases 2025 Most Challenged Books

NPR — PEN America 2024–25 Report

Authors Guild — Voters Reject Book Restrictions, 2025

Washington Post — Trump, Moms for Liberty, Heritage Foundation

New Jersey Monitor — M4L Summit and Project 2025 Ties

GLAAD — Moms for Liberty and Book Bans

EveryLibrary Institute — Project 2025 and Libraries

I Love Libraries — Book Challenges Update

Freedom to Learn Foundation — 2025 State of Book Banning

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